Chapter 9
Qualitative Methods
Introduction
• Different approach to qualitative inquiry • Educating readers of the intent • Tell reader about the design • Comments on role of researcher
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Qualitative Methods
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Qualitative Methods
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The Characteristics of Qualitative Research
• Review the needs of potential audiences for the proposal • May need to discuss characteristics of qualitativeresearch – Natural setting – Researcher as key instrument – Multiple sources of data – Inductive and deductive data analysis – Participants' meanings – Emergent design – Reflexivity – Holistic account
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Qualitative Designs
• Specific approaches in conducting qualitative research • Include procedures for data collection, analysis, and writing • Designs include – Narrative – Phenomenology – Ethnography – Case study – Grounded theory
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The Researcher’s Role and Reflexivity
• Researcher has sustained intensive experience withparticipants • Ethical issues can arise • Researchers should comment on
– Past experiences with participants, setting or research problem – How these experiences shape the interpretations
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The Researcher’s Role and Reflexivity
• Memos reflect on developing codes and themes • Connection between researchers, participants, sitethat may influence interpretations • Indicate steps to get IRB permissions
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The Researcher’s Role and Reflexivity
• Discuss steps to gain entry into the setting • Gatekeepers – individuals at the site who provide access • A brief proposal may help
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The Researcher’s Role and Reflexivity
• Proposals to gatekeepers –Why was the site chosen for study? –What activities will occur at the site? –Will the study be disruptive? – How will the results be reported? –What will the gatekeeper gain from the study?
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Data Collection Procedures
• Purposefully select individuals and sites to best understand the problem • Discuss strategies to recruit • Comment on the number of sites and participants • Saturation – fresh data no longer sparks new insights or reveals new properties
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Data Collection Procedures
• Types of qualitative data collection – Qualitative observations – Qualitative interviews – Qualitative documents – Qualitative audio-visual materials (see Table 9.2)
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Data Collection Procedures
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Data Collection Procedures
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Data Collection Procedures
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Data Collection Procedures
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Data Collection Procedures
• Be specific about types • Include data collection types beyond typicalobservations and interviews • These unusual forms create reader interest and can capture useful information . (see Table 9.3)
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Data Collection Procedures
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Data Recording Procedures
• Observational protocol – record information while observing – Record descriptive notes – Reflexive notes – Demographic information – Setting
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Data Recording Procedures
• Interview protocol for asking questions and recording answers – Information about interview, introduction, questions and probes, closing instructions – Perhaps 5 to 10 questions – Prepare in advance –Memorize questions
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Data Analysis Procedures
• Segment and take apart the data and put back together • Data analysis will proceed hand-in-hand with data collection and the write-up of findings • Winnowing the data because it is dense • Aggregate into five to seven themes • Use a computer software program
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Data Analysis Procedures
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Data Analysis Procedures
Step 1 – Organize and prepare the data for analysis • e.g., Transcribing interviews Step 2 – Read or look at all the data • Gain a general sense of the data
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Data Analysis Procedures
Step 3 – Start coding all of the data • Coding – organize data by bracketing chunks • Labeling with a term (code), often based on language of participants
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Data Analysis Procedures
Step 4 – Generate a description and themes Step 5 – Represent the description and themes • Narrative discussion, figures, tables, quotes
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Data Analysis Procedures
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Data Analysis Procedures
• Categories of codes – Expected codes – Surprising codes – Codes of unusual or conceptual interest – Predetermined codes
• Visual images may be coded
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Data Analysis Procedures
• Further data analysis by approach –More general procedures – Analysis embedded within specific qualitative designs
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Interpretation
• Interpretation in qualitative research – Summarize overall findings, compare to literature – Use a theoretical lens – Convey personal, research-based, and action meanings – Suggest limitations and future research
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Validity and Reliability
• Qualitative validity – Determine whether findings are accurate fromstandpoint of researcher, participant, or readers
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Validity and Reliability
• Use multiple validity procedures – Triangulate –Member checking – Rich, thick description – Clarify bias – Negative information – External auditor – Peer debriefing – Prolonged time in the field
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Validity and Reliability
• Qualitative reliability – Researcher uses an approach that is consistentacross different analysts and projects – Check transcripts for mistakes – Ensure no drift in definition of codes – Communication among coders – Cross-check codes by different researchers
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Validity and Reliability
• Qualitative generalization – Used in limited way in qualitative research – Focus on the particularity, not generalizability – Case study results may generalize to broadertheory
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Writing the Qualitative Report
• Plan for the narrative – Developing description and themes – Considering how sections will be presented
• Convey the following: – Use quotes – Dialogue that reflects culture – Varied narrative form – Use the first person – Use metaphors and analogies – Narrative reflects strategies
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Summary
• Components of writing a qualitative methods section – Characteristics of qualitative research – Data collection – Data analysis – Expected outcomes – Strategies to validate
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