Systems Analysis & Design

Tenth Edition

Chapter 4

Information Gathering: Interactive Methods

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Learning Objectives

4.1 Recognize the value of interactive methods for information gathering

4.2 Construct interview questions to elicit human information requirements and structure them in a way that is meaningful to users

4.3 Understand the purpose of stories and why they are useful in systems analysis

4.4 Understand the concept of J A D and when to use it

4.5 Write effective questions to survey users about their work

4.6 Design and administer effective questionnaires

Interactive Methods to Elicit Human Information Requirements

Interviewing

Joint Application Design (J A D)

Questionnaires

The commonality of these methods is talking with and listening to people in the organization in order to understand their interactions with technology through a series of carefully composed questions.

Major Topics (1 of 2)

Interviewing

Interview preparation

Question types

Arranging questions

The interview report

User Stories

Major Topics (2 of 2)

Joint Application Design (J A D)

Involvement

Location

Questionnaires

Writing questions

Using scales

Design

Administering

Interviewing

Interviewing is an important method for collecting data on human and system information requirements

Interviews reveal information about:

Interviewee opinions

Interviewee feelings

Goals

Key H C I concerns

Opinions—may be more revealing and more important then facts. By seeking opinion rather then fact you can discover key problems.

Feelings—you can understand the organization’s culture more fully by listening to the feelings of the respondent.

Goals – project the organization’s future. You may not be able to determine goals through any other method.

HCI – the ergonomic aspects, the system usability, how pleasing and enjoyable the system is, and how useful it is in supporting individual tasks.

Interview Preparation

Reading background material

Establishing interview objectives

Deciding whom to interview

Preparing the interviewee

Deciding on question types and structure

Reading background material—read and understand as much background information about the interviewees and their organization as possible.

Corporate Web site

Current annual report

Corporate newsletter

Any publication sent out to explain the organization to the public

Standard & Poor’s

Try to build a common vocabulary to better phrase interview questions and to maximize the interview time.

Establishing interview objectives—four to six key areas concerning HCI, information processing, and decision-making behavior.

Deciding whom to interview—strive for balance so that as many users’ needs are addressed as possible.

Preparing the interviewee—call ahead; keep interviews within 45 minutes to an hour at the most.

Deciding on question types and structure—write questions to cover the key areas of decision making that you discovered when you ascertained interview objectives.

Question Types (1 of 2)

Open-ended

Closed

Each question type can accomplish something a little different from the other, and each has benefits and drawbacks.

Open-Ended Questions

Open-ended interview questions allow interviewees to respond how they wish without length or structure limitations

Open-ended interview questions are appropriate when the analyst is interested in breadth and depth of reply

“Open” actually describes the interviewee’s options for responding. They are open.

Figure 4.2 Open-Ended Interview Questions

What’s your opinion of the current state of business-to-business ecommerce in your firm?

What are the critical objectives of your department?

Once the data are submitted via the website, how are they processed?

Describe the monitoring process that is available online.

What are some of the common data entry errors made in this department?

What are the biggest frustrations you’ve experienced during the transition to ecommerce?

Advantages of Open-Ended Questions (1 of 2)

Puts the interviewee at ease

Allows the interviewer to pick up on the interviewee’s vocabulary

Provides richness of detail

Reveals avenues of further questioning that may have gone untapped

Advantages of Open-Ended Questions (2 of 2)

Provides more interest for the interviewee

Allows more spontaneity

Makes phrasing easier for the interviewer

Useful if the interviewer is unprepared

Disadvantages of Open-Ended Questions

May result in too much irrelevant detail

Possibly losing control of the interview

May take too much time for the amount of useful information gained

Potentially seeming that the interviewer is unprepared

Possibly giving the impression that the interviewer is on a “fishing expedition”

The analyst needs to carefully consider the implications of using open-ended questions for interviewing.

Closed Interview Questions

Closed interview questions limit the number of possible responses

Closed interview questions are appropriate for generating precise, reliable data that is easy to analyze

The methodology is efficient, and it requires little skill for interviewers to administer

The alternative to open-ended questions.

Figure 4.3 Closed Interview Questions

How many times a week is the project repository updated?

On average, how many calls does the call center receive monthly?

Which of the following sources of information is most valuable to you?

Completed customer complaint forms

Email complaints from consumers who visit the website

Face-to-face interaction with customers

Returned merchandise

List your top two priorities for improving the technology infrastructure.

Who receives this input?

Benefits of Closed Interview Questions

Save interview time

Easily compare interviews

Quickly get to the point

Maintain control of the interview

Cover a large area quickly

Obtain relevant data

Disadvantages of Closed Interview Questions

May be boring for the interviewee

May fail to obtain rich details

May miss some main ideas

May fail to build rapport between interviewer and interviewee

As the interviewer you must think carefully about the question types you will use.

Figure 4.5 Attributes of Open-Ended and Closed Questions

Choosing one question type over the other involves a trade-off; although an open-ended question affords breadth and depth of reply, responses to open-ended questions are difficult to analyze.

Bipolar Questions

Bipolar questions are those that may be answered with a “yes” or “no” or “agree” or “disagree”

Bipolar questions should be used sparingly

A special kind of closed question

This type of closed question limits the interviewee even further by allowing a choice on either “pole,” such as yes or no, true or false, agree or disagree.

Probes

Probing questions elicit more detail about previous questions

The purpose of probing questions is:

To get more meaning

To clarify

To draw out and expand on the interviewee’s point

May be either open-ended or closed

Used as a follow-up question.

The strongest probe is simply—Why?

It is essential to probe so that we don’t accept superficial answers.

Arranging Questions

Pyramid

Starting with closed questions and working toward open-ended questions

Funnel

Starting with open-ended questions and working toward closed questions

Diamond

Starting with closed, moving toward open-ended, and ending with closed questions

There are two ways of organizing interviews—pyramid and funnel, the diamond approach combines both.

Pyramid Structure

Begins with very detailed, often closed questions

Expands by allowing open-ended questions and more generalized responses

Is useful if interviewees need to be warmed up to the topic or seem reluctant to address the topic

Inductive organization of interview questions.

Also useful if you want an ending determination about the topic.

Figure 4.7 Pyramid Structure for Interviewing Goes from Specific to General Questions

Funnel Structure

Begins with generalized, open-ended questions

Concludes by narrowing the possible responses using closed questions

Provides an easy, nonthreatening way to begin an interview

Is useful when the interviewee feels emotionally about the topic

Deductive organization of interview questions.

Figure 4.8 Funnel Structure for Interviewing Begins with Broad Questions Then Funnels to Specific Questions

Diamond Structure

A diamond-shaped structure begins in a very specific way

Then more general issues are examined

Concludes with specific questions

Combines the strength of both the pyramid and funnel structures

Takes longer than the other structures

The diamond structure combines the strengths of the pyramid and funnel approach but has the disadvantage of taking longer.

Figure 4.9 Diamond-Shaped Structure for Interviewing Combines the Pyramid and Funnel Structures

Closing the Interview

Always ask “Is there anything else that you would like to add?”

Summarize and provide feedback on your impressions

Ask whom you should talk with next

Set up any future appointments

Thank them for their time and shake hands.

“Is there anything else that you would like to add?” —considered a formula question the response will often be “No.”

In form the interviewee about the next steps to take.

Always remember to thank the interviewee for their time.

Interview Report

Write as soon as possible after the interview

Provide an initial summary, then more detail

Review the report with the respondent

The longer you wait to write your report, the more suspect your data becomes.

Review the report with the respondent—helps clarify the meaning the interviewee had in mind and lets the interviewee know that you care.

Stories

Stories originate in the workplace

Organizational stories are used to relay some kind of information

When a story is told and retold over time it takes on a mythic quality

Isolated stories are good when you are looking for facts

Enduring stories capture all aspects of the organization and are the ones a systems analyst should look be seeking

Listening to Stories

Listening to stories is not efficient

It takes considerably more time than asking interview questions

Listening to stories may be more rewarding

Stories are more easily remembered than interview responses

Stories are Made up of Elements

All stories have these elements:

The call to adventure

The quest

The struggle

The transformation

The resolution

The moral

The epilogue

Reasons for Telling Stories

Rich information from listening carefully to the stories is in itself valuable

The information gleaned from the stories will make more sense and be more valuable if seen in context

Business Stories

Business stories can be broken down into four important main types:

Experiential stories

Explanatory stories

Validating stories

Prescriptive stories

Stories and the Organization

Engage organization participants by reacting to stories

Match one story to another by recounting it to other participants, and collaborating with the stories

It is a way to deeply understand some of the problems associated with information systems

Purposes for Telling a Story

There are four purposes for telling a story:

Experiential stories describe what the business or industry is like

Explanatory stories tell why the organization acted a certain way

Validating stories are used to convince people that the organization made the correct decision

Prescriptive stories tell the listener how to act

Systems analysts can use storytelling as a complement to other information gathering methods

Joint Application Design (J A D)

Joint Application Design (J A D) can replace a series of interviews with the user community

J A D is a technique that allows the analyst to accomplish requirements analysis and design the user interface with the users in a group setting

An alternative approach to interviewing users one by one.

Developed by IBM.

The motivation was to cut the time and hence the cost required by interviews. It also creates more use identification with new systems as a result of the participative process.

Conditions That Support the Use of J A D

Users are restless and want something new

The organizational culture supports joint problem-solving behaviors

Analysts forecast an increase in the number of ideas using J A D

Personnel may be absent from their jobs for the length of time required

Who is Involved

The people involved are:

Executive sponsor

I S analyst

Users

Session leader

Observers

Scribe

All project team members must be committed to the JAD approach and become involved.

Executive sponsor—a senior person who will introduce and conclude the JAD session.

IS Analyst—gives an expert opinion about any disproportionate costs of solutions proposed.

Users—those who can articulate the information they need to perform their jobs, as well as what they desire in a new or improved computer system.

Session leader—someone who has excellent communication skills to facilitate appropriate interactions.

Observers—analysts or technical experts from other functional areas to offer technical explanations and advice.

Scribe—formally writes down everything that is done.

Where to Hold J A D Meetings

Offsite

Comfortable surroundings

Minimize distractions

Attendance

Schedule when participants can attend

Agenda

Orientation meeting

Hold offsite to minimize the daily distractions and responsibilities of the participants’ regular work.

Do not hold the session unless everyone can attend. An agenda should be given out before the meeting so the participants know what to expect. If possible, an orientation meeting can be held.

Benefits of J A D

Time is saved, compared with traditional interviewing

Rapid development of systems

Improved user ownership of the system

Creative idea production is improved

Some organizations have estimated a 15 percent time savings over traditional.

Helps users become involved early in systems projects and treats their feedback seriously.

Much like brainstorming which allows for creative idea production.

Drawbacks of Using J A D

J A D requires a large block of time to be available for all session participants

If preparation or the follow-up report is incomplete, the session may not be successful

The organizational skills and culture may not be conducive to a J A D session

It is not possible to do other activities concurrently or to time-shift any activities, as is typically done in one-to-one interviewing.

It is a judgmental decision if the organization is truly committed to, and prepared for, this approach.

Questionnaires

Questionnaires are useful in gathering information from key organization members about:

Attitudes

Beliefs

Behaviors

Characteristics

Attitudes—what people in the organization say they want.

Beliefs—what people think is actually true.

Behavior—what organizational members do.

Characteristics—properties of people or things.

Planning for the Use of Questionnaires

Organization members are widely dispersed

Many members are involved with the project

Exploratory work is needed

Problem solving prior to interviews is necessary

Question Types (2 of 2)

Questions are designed as either:

Open-ended

Try to anticipate the response you will get

Well suited for getting opinions

Closed

Use when all the options may be listed

When the options are mutually exclusive

Even when you write an open-ended question, it must be narrow enough to guide respondents to answer in a specific way.

Use open-ended questions when it is impossible to list effectively all possible responses to a question.

Figure 4.13 Trade-Offs between the Use of Open-Ended and Closed Questions on Questionnaires

Questionnaire Language

Simple

Specific

Short

Not patronizing

Free of bias

Addressed to those who are knowledgeable

Technically accurate

Appropriate for the reading level of the respondent

Write questionnaires in the respondents own language usage.

Simple – use the language of the respondents whenever possible.

Specific – work at being specific rather then vague in wording.

Short – keep questions short.

Not patronizing – do not talk down to participants through low-level language choices.

Free of bias – also means avoiding objectionable questions.

Addressed to those who are knowledgeable – target questions to correct respondents.

Measurement Scales

The two different forms of measurement scales are:

Nominal

Interval

Scaling is the process of assigning numbers or other symbols to an attribute or characteristic for the purpose of measuring that attribute or characteristic.

Nominal Scales

Nominal scales are used to classify things

It is the weakest form of measurement

Data may be totaled

What type of software do you use the most?

1 = Word Processor

2 = Spreadsheet

3 = Database

4 = An Email Program

Interval Scales

An interval scale is used when the intervals are equal

There is no absolute zero

Examples of interval scales include the Fahrenheit or Centigrade scale

More complete analysis can be performed on interval scales.

Validity and Reliability

Reliability of scales refers to consistency in response—getting the same results if the same questionnaire was administered again under the same conditions

Validity is the degree to which the question measures what the analyst intends to measure

Questionnaires must be valid and reliable.

Problems with Scales

Leniency

Central tendency

Halo effect

Construction of scales is a serious task, which must consider the problems associated with their construction.

Leniency

Caused by easy raters

Solution is to move the “average” category to the left or right of center

Central Tendency

Central tendency occurs when respondents rate everything as average

Improve by making the differences smaller at the two ends

Adjust the strength of the descriptors

Create a scale with more points

Halo Effect

When the impression formed in one question carries into the next question

Solution is to place one trait and several items on each page

Designing the Questionnaire

Allow ample white space

Allow ample space to write or type in responses

Make it easy for respondents to clearly mark their answers

Be consistent in style

A well-designed, relevant questionnaire can help overcome some of the resistance to respond.

Order of Questions

Place most important questions first

Cluster items of similar content together

Introduce less controversial questions first

You want respondents to feel as unthreatened by and interested in the questions being asked as possible, without getting overwrought about a particular issue.

Administering Questionnaires

Administering questionnaires has two main questions:

Who in the organization should receive the questionnaire

How should the questionnaire be administered

Figure 4.14 Ways to Capture Responses When Designing a Web Survey

Name	Appearance	Purpose
One-line text box	A single line text box is shown, Used to obtain a small amount of text and limit the answer to a few words.	Used to obtain a small amount of text and limit the answer to a few words
Scrolling text box	Multi line text box with horizontal and vertical scroll bars shown, Used to obtain one or more paragraphs of text.	Used to obtain one or more paragraphs of text
Check box	Checkbox is shown, Used to obtain a yes-no answer left parenthesis example, Do you wish to be included on the mailing list? Right parenthesis.	Used to obtain a yes-no answer (e.g., Do you wish to be included on the mailing list?)
Radio button	Checked radio button, a round button with a solid dot in the center, is shown : Used to obtain a yes-no or true-false answer.	Used to obtain a yes-no or true-false answer
Drop-down menu	Image of a dropdown button is shown : Used to obtain more consistent results Left parenthesis Respondent is able to choose the appropriate answer from a predetermined list left bracket example., a list of state abbreviations right bracket right parenthesis.	Used to obtain more consistent results(Respondent is able to choose the appropriate answer from a predetermined list [e.g., a list of state abbreviations])
Push button	Push button, Image of a button labeled as Button is shown, Most often used for an action left parenthesis e.g., a respondent pushes a button marked “Submit” or “Clear” right parenthesis.	Most often used for an action (e.g., a respondent pushes a button marked “Submit” or “Clear”)

When you design questionnaires for the Web, apply the same rules you use when designing paper questionnaires.

Electronically Submitting Questionnaires

Reduced costs

Collecting and storing the results electronically

Reminders can be sent.

Summary (1 of 2)

Interviewing

Interview preparation

Question types

Arranging questions

The interview report

Stories

Story elements

Summary (2 of 2)

Joint Application Design (J A D)

Involvement and location

Questionnaires

Writing questions

Using scales and overcoming problems

Design and order

Administering and submitting

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